UNIT 6

THE WAY PEOPLE AND GROUPS RELATE TO EACH OTHER

 

 

Ex. 3. Read the text and say how society is organised:

The students of sociology pay much attention to discovering how persons and groups relate to each other.

Social organisation is the pattern of individual and group relations. There are three levels of social organisation. They are: interpersonal relations, that is the micro-order of the society, group relations, that is the medium order of the society, and macro relations or social order.

An interpersonal relation is the most elementary social bond, oc­curring when two persons stand in some relation to each other. These relations are the building blocks of social structure.

Organisation of people in a group is reflected through roles and modes of interaction. Knowledge of the group structure of a commu­nity or society gives clues to potential conflicts or solidarity, as well as to forces that may determine the future character of a society or a community.

A social order exists when an entire community or society for a significant period of history is characterized by distinctive and in­terwoven patterns of social organisation. A social order is a type of society.

It is evident that large complex and impersonal organizations are characteristic of our present social world. Most people are associated with them. Decisions of large organisations deeply affect our personal worlds and often quite negatively.

 

Ex 4. Answer the questions:

1. What is social organisation? 

2. What levels of social organization are there?

3. What is the most elementary social bond?

4. What are the building blocks of social structure?

5. What is organisation of people in a group reflected through?

6. What gives clues to potential conflicts or solidarity?

7. What is a social order?

8. What are most people associated with? 

9. Do decisions of large organisations deeply affect our personal worlds?

10. How do large organisations affect our personal worlds?

 

Ex 5. Provide an adequate sociological analysis of the following:

1. What patterns of individual and group relations are there in a students'group/travel agency/a company manufacturing computers?

2. What patterns of individual and group relations are there in a tribe/city/state?

 

Help Box:

 

Theoretically, ... . Practically, ... . supervising professor; lecturer; dean of the faculty; head of department etc.; travel agent(s); tourists; director of the firm; employees; manager; customers (clients); suppliers; manufacturers; elders; clans (communities); the human herd; government executive; the head (minister) of trade (education; health care; etc.); president. The following levels of social organisation exist in a     .... ... stand in interpersonal/group relations to each other. There exists a social order in a ... .

 

Ex 6. Prove that our society is socially organized.

 

B. The Structure of Social Interaction

 

Ex 1. Read the text and say how social interaction is structured and whether it threatens our individuality:

Because society is an organized system, it is not surprising that social interaction is patterned. Society is, after all, built on countless interactions among individual human beings, and human beings have the capacity to act with almost infinite variety. In the absence of social patterns, people would indeed find social life confusing. Culture pro­vides guidelines for human behaviour in the form of values and norms.

To illustrate, consider the familiar setting of an American college classroom. Entering the classroom, students could do almost anything -begin to sing or throw a football around the room - but, guided by the social norms that apply to that setting, they routinely take their seats, perhaps talking quietly among themselves, and await the arrival of the professor. Even though professors are defined as being in charge of the class, they too are bound by cultural norms, so they begin to teach from a position at the front of the room while facing the class.

Certainly, the behaviour of each student and teacher is partly unique; yet social behaviour in one American classroom is remarkably like that in any other. In spite of personal differences, individuals who enter the class­room behave like "professors" or "students". This fact is clearly evident to people who return, after many years, to a school they once attended. The school is now filled with unfamiliar faces, but the social patterns remain much the same. In other words, even though different people come and go from this setting, the social structure of classroom behaviour per­sists over time. In the same way, although every family is composed of different individuals, the behaviour of "mothers", "fathers", "brothers", and "sisters" is also largely patterned according to cultural norms.

Social Structure and Individuality. The assertion that human be­haviour is socially patterned often provokes some initial resistance. Few human beings readily admit to being part of any kind of system, espe­cially those who live in a culture that prizes individual autonomy. Amer­icans, for instance, tend to emphasize individual responsibility for be­haviour and highlight the unique elements of their personalities. Be­having in patterned ways, however, does not threaten our individuality. On the contrary, individuality is encouraged by social structure.

First, and more generally, our humanity involves much more than physical existence. The great potential of human beings develops only through interaction with others. Within social life, distinct personalities emerge as people blend their unique qualities with the values and norms of the large culture from freely expressing ourselves. The social world can be disorienting, even frightening, to people who do not know the behaviour guidelines. Without this knowledge, people feel too uncom­fortable to express their unique personalities with confidence.

To illustrate, you may recall going alone to a party given by peo­ple you did not know well. Entering such a setting - and not knowing quite what to expect - is likely to cause some anxiety. At such times you generally feel self-conscious, try to make a favorable impression, and look to others for clues about what sort of behaviour is expected of you. Once you understand the behavioral standards that apply to the setting, you are likely to feel comfortable enough to "act like yourself".

Of course, social structure also places some constraints on human behaviour. By guiding behaviour within culturally approved bounds, established social patterns discourage behaviour that is culturally de­fined as unconventional. Traditional values and norms in the United States and Canada, for example, still reflect the expectation that males will be "masculine" (physically strong, self-assertive, and rational) and the females will be "feminine" (physically weak, self-effacing, and emotion­al). The structure of society exerts pressure on individuals to fit into one or the other of these categories, ignoring the fact that most people have both "masculine" and "feminine" qualities. In this and many other ways, social structure can limit any individual's freedom to think and act in ways that may be personally preferred. In addition, the failure to conform to estab­lished social patterns may lead to being defined by others as deviant.

 

Ex 2. Answer the following questions:

1. Why do we say that social interaction is patterned? 

2. What does culture provide?

3. So, according to what is our behaviour patterned?

4. What may this assertion provoke?

5. Does behaving in patterned ways threaten our individuality in any way?

6. Through what does the potential of human beings develop?

7. In what case do people feel uncomfortable?

8. What do you feel in an unfamiliar situation?

9. What does social structure place on human behaviour?

10. What is understood by unconventional behaviour? 

11. What pressure does the structure of society exert on individuals?

12. What can social structure limit?

 

Ex 3. Prove the following statements:

1. Social interaction is patterned. 

2. Culture provides guidelines for human behaviour.

3. The human behaviour is patterned according to cultural norms.

4. Behaving in patterned ways does not threaten our individuality.

5. A great potential of human beings develops through interaction.

 

 

Ex 4. State the general idea of each paragraph of the text.

 

Ex 5. Express your opinion of the text. Use the following words for the characteristic:

important - inconclusive

essential - trivial

well-presented - muddle

interesting - dull

valid - inaccurate, wrong (conclusions)

 

Ex 6. Summarize the contents of the text in 10 sentences.

 

 

WORD STUDY

 

 

Ex 1. Find in the text "The Structure of Social Interactions" English equivalents for:

В конце концов; социальные модели; нормы поведения; в обществе; во главе; конечно; отчасти; несмотря на; во многом такие же; другими словами; окружение (среда); с готовностью; например; напротив; ограничить свободу; кроме того.

 

Ex. 2. Arrange the following words into pairs of antonyms: 

Disorganized Chaos Infinite In the presence Lose Unfamiliar Leave Finish Noisily Departure Ordinary Similarity In the same way Seldom Disappear Comfortable Strong

Limited Familiar Quietly Difference Emerge Organized In the absence Enter Arrival In other words Uncomfortable System Find Begin Unique Often Weak

 

Ex 3. Make up sentences choosing an appropriate variant from 1) - 7):

1. The scientist was guided by...

2. The room was filled with...

3. His theory is built on...

4. Human behaviour is defined by...

5. Social interaction is patterned...

6. His activity is encouraged by...

7. He is in charge of...

 

1) Cultural values and norms.

2) The working team.

3) The latest scientific discoveries.

4) The Sociology Research Institute.

5) Unfamiliar faces.

6) Empirical investigation.

7) As society is an organized system.

 

Ex 4. Make up dialogues according to the following situations:

1) An odd person comes to you. He says you were friends years ago. You have never met him before and you suspect his motives.

2) Your friend is acting very strangely. You feel he has a secret worry. Find out what is wrong with him.

3) Ask your friend to prove that the quality of personality is not inborn. It is a social phenomenon. Ask him whether we can predict a man's behaviour in a certain situation and what measurements of per­sonality exist, what they are called.

4) You are an introvert by nature, you are unable to overcome un­certainty in taking decisions and often experience troubles in life. You are asked to organize a conference, but you are afraid to accept such an offer. Your friend tries to persuade you to agree.

 

Note: The following word-combinations may be helpful:

 

To be concerned with, to be interested in, to be guided by, to be encouraged by, to be in charge of, to be filled with, to be prone to, to make use of.

 

 

Text 2 A.

Social Status

 

Ex 1. Match the English and Russian equivalents:

Briefly, pattern, behaviour, to represent, dynamic, significance, to determine, identity, social identity, salient, to occupy, transitory, self­determined, temporary, impact, dominant, life cycle, relatively, volun­tary, to ascribe, criterion (criteria), age, sex, inheritance.

Влияние; приписывать; независимый, действующий по своему усмотрению; определять; занимать; стиль жизни; критерий (-и); представлять; кратко; временный; возраст; выдающийся, основной; образец, модель; самостность; социальное лицо; пол; относительно; развивающийся, изменяющийся; поведение; важность, значимость; переходный; преобладающий; добровольный; наследственность.

 

Ex 2. Read the text and say what types of social status there are:

Briefly, a social status is a position within a social system, a social role is the pattern of behaviour associated with that position. The role represents the dynamic aspect of status.

A major significance of status is that it can and does determine social identity. A status is salient and tends to fix the identity of the person who occupies it if a large part of the individual's life is organ­ised around it. Thus, for many people their profession is a salient status.

A transitory social position, for example a temporary job, has little impact upon social identity.

Traditional society depended for its stability on salient statuses. Today salient status is not a dominant principle of social organisation. Life is fluid and people may occupy different statuses through the life cycle. But a status may still be relatively salient, at least for a certain period of life. Sometimes the salient status is voluntary or self-deter­mined, but many salient statuses are not voluntary, or ascribed.

An ascribed status is one assigned to the individual by legal or other social criteria (age, sex, race, inheritance, etc.).

 

Ex. 3. Answer the following questions:

1. What is a social status?

2. How can you define a social role?

3. What is a salient status?

 

I. Georges Teste: a taxi driver (has got all the driving categories except one) (worked as a shop assistant for two years)
Age: 27 Country: France Town: Paris Place of work: in the centre of Paris Marital status: not married Family: a dog Free time: walking with his dog and playing football   II. Keiko Wilson: an interpreter (for 15 years) (worked as a Russian teacher for some time) Age: 43  Country: Japan	From common-sense point of view, ...is a(n)... ...lives...                ...speaks... ...works...               ...has...  ...is(n't)... ...likes.. .in his/her free time.   From a sociological point of view, the salient/transitory/ascribed status of this person is ... .

Town: New York 

Place of work: at the United Nations

Family: married to an American, two sons

Languages: Japanese, English, and Russian

Free time: skiing

  

III. Mark King: a journalist for the BBC (worked as a newspaper editor for seven years) Age: 39

Country: England

Town: Moscow

Place of work: in an office

Languages: English, Russian, and German

Family: married, three daughters

Free time: tennis

 

B. Social Role

 

Ex 1. Match the English and Russian equivalents:

To prescribe, right, duty, social position, perceived role, performed role, pressure, opportunity, setting, role set, expectations, to acquire, to generate.

Давление, набор ролей, предписывать, приобретать, приобре­тенная роль, долг, ожидания, право, порождать, обстановка, соци­альное положение, возможность, исполняемая роль.

 

Ex. 2. Read the text and say what a person must do when he enters a new social status:

The sociological role includes the following elements:

1) the socially prescribed or ideal role. The ideal role prescribes the rights and duties belonging to a social position.

2) the perceived role. What the individual believes he should do in a particular position may not fully coincide with the conventional im­age or ideal.

3) the performed role.

Actual role behaviour is always subject to the pressures and op­portunities of a special social setting at a specific time. It is also condi­tioned by the individual's personality and past experience.

An adequate analysis of any social role must take account of all three elements: prescription, perception and performance.

A given social status generates more than one role. When some­one enters a new status he/she usually acquires a role set because he/ she must meet the expectations of a number of different people.

 

Ex. 3. Answer the questions on the text:

1. What elements does a social role include? 

2. Can you describe each type?

3. What is actual role behaviour influenced by?

4. What does a person acquire when entering a new status?

 

Like status, a role is relational by directing social behaviour to­ward some other person. The role that corresponds to the status of par­ent, for example, is ideally defined in terms of responsibilities toward a child. Correspondingly, the role of son or daughter is ideally defined in terms of obligations toward a parent. There are countless other exam­ples of roles paired in this way: the behaviour of wives and husbands is performed in relation to each other, as is the behaviour of physicians and patients, and of professors and students.

Because individuals occupy many statuses at one time - a status set - they perform multiple roles. Yet a person has even more roles than statuses because any one status involves performing several roles in relation to various other people. Robert Merton (1968) introduced the term role set to identify a number of roles attached to a single status.

 

Figure 1. Status Set and Role Set of a Woman.

wife		conjugal role domestic role
mother		maternal role civic role
teacher		teaching role colleague role
researcher		laboratory role author role

Figure 1 illustrates the status set and corresponding role sets of one individual. Four statuses are presented, each linked to a different role set. First, this woman occupies the status of "wife". Corresponding to this status is a role set that includes her behaviour towards her hus­band (the "conjugal role") and her responsibilities in maintaining the household (the "domestic role"). Second, she also holds the status of "mother". Part of this role set is the care of children (the "maternal role") and her activities in various organisations (the "civic role"). Third, as a teacher, she interacts with students (the "teaching role") and other professors (the "colleague role"). Fourth, as a researcher, she gathers information (the "laboratory role") that is the basis for her publications (the "author role"). Figure 1 is, of course, only a partial listing of this individual's status set and role sets; a person generally occupies dozens of statuses at one time, each linked to a role set.

Strain Conflict. The several roles that are linked to any particular status are not always easily integrated, so an individual can feel pulled in several directions at once. Role strain is defined as incompatibility among the roles corresponding to a single status. When several roles linked to a single status make competing demands a person may not always be able to live up to social expectations. A parent, for example, may have difficulty with simultaneous responsibilities to discipline a child and to be the child's trusted confidant.

In addition, roles attached to different statuses often demand in­compatible patterns of behaviour. The concept of role conflict refers to incompatibility among the roles corresponding to two or more statuses. Single parents often experience role conflict in their attempt to be both parents and bread winners - each status demands considerable time and energy. Consequently, the individual may find that both roles cannot be fully performed simultaneously.

 

Ex 2. Answer the following questions:

1. When do the individuals perform roles? 

2. What is called a role expectation?

3. Are role performance and role expectation the same or different notions?

4. Does a person have more roles or statuses?

5. What is the difference between role strain and role conflict? 

 

Ex. 3. Explain:

1) the difference between "role" and "status";

2) the cause of "role strain";

3) the reason for "role conflict".

 

Ex 4. Summarize the contents of the text in 10 sentences.

 

Ex 5. Identify a number of roles played by:

1) your parents;

2) your close friend;

3) your neighbour;

4) you personally.

 

D. Dramaturgical Analysis:

"The Presentation of Self'

 

Ex. 1. Read the text and give its general idea:

Dramaturgical analysis is the analysis of social interaction as if it were a theatrical performance. This approach to the study of social inter­action is closely associated with the work of Erving Goffman (1922 -1980). Goffman agreed that people socially construct reality, but empha­sized that in doing so, they make use of various elements of social struc­ture. Thus, like a director carefully scrutinizing actors on a stage, Goff-man sought to identify social structures that are used over and over again.

Dramaturgical analysis provides a fresh look at two now familiar concepts. A status is very much like a part in a play, and a role can be compared to a script that supplies dialogue and action to each of the char­acters. Roles are performed in countless settings that are like a stage in a theatre, and are observed by various audiences. The heart of Goffman's analysis is the process he called the presentation of self, which means the ways in which individuals, in various settings, attempt to create specific impressions in the minds of others. This process is also called impression management, and contains a number of common elements.

 

Ex 2. Answer the questions:

1. What problem does the text deal with? 

2. What kind of analysis is dramaturgical analysis?

3. What does "the presentation of self mean?

4. What is the other name for it? 

 

Ex 3. Role-play these situations:

1. You are the young mother and leader of the Ecology Commit­tee. You want your children to grow up in a clean, traffic-free environ­ment. You are trying to explain your position to a social worker who has come for the permission of a new traffic route in your residential area. 

2. You are a sociologist. You are interviewing a married couple that decided to take a child from a foundling home. Find out about their background, and what they offer a child. Find out why they want to adopt him, and if they are aware of the problems that may arise. Re­member, this is a difficult situation for all involved, so your questions should be less direct and more tactful than usual. 

3. You are interviewing a newly-married couple. Try to find out tact­fully about their likes and dislikes. Give them some advice if necessary. 

 

WORD STUDY

 

Ex. 1. Find in the texts English equivalents for:

Соответствующий; приближаться; посредством; одновремен­но; ряд ролей; вести хозяйство; частичный перечень; несовмести­мость; следовательно; тесно связан; снова и снова; суть анализа.

 

Ex 2. Read and translate the following words and their deriva­tives:

interact - interaction - interactant - interacting

correspond - correspondence - corresponding - correspondingly

respond - response - respondent

perform - performance

expect - expectation - expectancy

relate - relation - relational - relative - relatively

introduce - introduction - introductory

incompatible - incompatibility

analyze - analysis - analyst

 

Ex. 3. Read and translate the following sentences:

1. The problem must be explained in terms of dialectical materialism. 

2. By means of this definition he managed to explicate the issue.

3. They pointed to the drawbacks of his theory by means of a new hypothesis.

4. In terms of his viewpoint the scholar solved this complicated problem.

5. He analyzed the phenomenon of creativity in terms of the new approach.

6. By means of his analysis they made a correct conclusion.

7. In terms of his interpretation the issue was properly examined.

 

Ex. 4. Complete the following sentences:

1. Single parents experience role conflict in ....

2. I experienced hardships while ....

3. He experiences true feelings toward ....

4. Recent years experienced great transformations in ....

5. I experience joy when ....

6. They experience troubles in ....

 

Ex. 5. Answer:

1. What do you experience when you receive a letter from your girl- (boy-) friend?

2. What do you experience if you are telling a lie?

3. What do you experience when you cannot get tickets for a concert?

4. What do you experience when your friend deceives you?

5. What do you experience if you fail at an examination?

6. What do you experience when you meet your favourite actor (actress)?

 

Test Translation

 

1. Социологи уделяют немало внимания тому, чтобы выяснить, как люди и группы взаимодействуют между собой.

2. Межличностные отношения являются фундаментом струк­туры общества.

3. С социологической точки зрения, организация людей в группе отображена с помощью ролей и способов взаимодействия.

4. Социальный порядок существует тогда, когда всe общество в определeнный период истории характеризуется отчeтливыми и переплетающимися моделями социальной организации.

5. Очевидно, что решения больших сложных и неличностных организаций, которые характеризуют наш современный мир, оказы­вают огромное влияние на наш внутренний (личностный) мир.

6. Социальный статус - это положение, занимаемое в системе общества.

7. Социальная роль - это модель поведения, которая ассоци­ируется с данной позицией.

8. Предписываемый статус определяется другими социаль­ными или юридическими критериями.

9. Данному социальному статусу соответствует много социальных ролей.

10. Реальное поведение человека в той или иной социальной роли обуславливается личностью самого человека, его прошлым опытом, а также необходимостями и возможностями окружающей обстановки в определeнное время. 

 

Here is the list of words you have learnt in unit 6: 

 

clue community distinctive level micro-order mode social order social organisation to relate relation pattern bond to occur structure interaction to determine to exist entire significant briefly pattern behaviour to represent dynamic significance to determine identity social identity

salient to occupy transitory self-determined temporary impact dominant life cycle relatively voluntary to ascribe criterion (criteria) age sex inheritance to prescribe right duty social position perceived role performed role pressure opportunity setting role set expectations to acquire to generate

GRAMMAR EXERCISES

Conditionals

 

A.

 

Ex 1. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense. Add a comma where necessary.

1. If you...have... (have) toothache, go to the dentist.

2. If Peter (do) lots of exercise he'll be fit and healthy.

3. Please call me if you (need) any help.

4. Sarah (be) angry if we don't go to her party?

5. Cathy will be able to go on holiday if she (save) enough money.

6. Unless it (rain) we'll go for a walk.

7. If you (work) hard you may be promoted.

8. You (give) me a call if you have time tomorrow?

9. If you don't do your homework I (not/let) you watch TV.

10. Mary won't go to Australia unless I (pay) for her tickets.

11. If he (arrive) on time we'll have dinner before we go out.

 

Ex. 2. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense. Add a comma where necessary.

1. A. I'd like a cup of coffee.

B. Well, if you...hold... (hold) the baby for five minutes, I (make) it for you.

2. A. I must go to the bank.

B. If you (leave) now, you (get) there before it closes.

3. A. I can't do everything myself!

B. Well, if you (wash) the dishes, I (cook) the meal.

4. A. Are you going on holiday this year?

B. Yes, I (go) to Spain for two weeks if I (have) some time off work.

5. A. I want to cook something special tonight.

B. Great, if I (finish) work early, I (give) you a hand.

6. A. Could I have a chocolate biscuit, please?

B. Yes, if you (look) in the cupboard, you (find) some cakes as well.

 

B.

 

Ex. 1. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense to make correct type 2 conditional sentences.

1. If I...were... (be) you, I...wouldstudy... (study) the exams.

2. If we (have) a car, we (go) for a drive in the country.

3. Kim (buy) some new clothes if she (have) enough money.

4. If cameras (not/cost) so much, we (buy) one.

5. John (lend) you some money if you (ask) him.

6. He (open) the door if he (have) the key.

7. We (paint) the house if we (have) the time.

8. If she (get) good grades, she (go) to university.

9. If I (be) rich, I (never/ work) again.

10. Helen (post) the letters if she (have) some stamps.

 

Ex. 2. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense to make correct type 3 conditional sentences.

1. If you...hadn't been... (not/be) in a hurry, you...wouldn't/might not have forgotten... your keys.

2. If he (remember) earlier, he (send) her a birthday card.

3. If you (not/be) ill, you (go) to the party.

4. Jason (not/break) his arm if he (be) more careful.

5. Helen (get) wet if she (not/take) her umbrella.

6. If I (do) my homework, my teacher (not/shout) at me.

7. You (pass) the test if you (study) more.

8. If she (close) the gate, the rabbit (not/run away).

9. She (lose) her keys if I (not/pick) them up. 

10. If he (save) some money, he (be able) to go on holiday.

 

Ex. 3. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense.

1. A: Mum, Dad shouted at me.

B: Well, if you...hadn't been... (not/be) naughty, he... wouldn't have shouted... (not/shout) at you.

2. A: I don't know what to do about my problem.

B: If I (be) you, I (talk) to my boss.

3. A: If I (win) lots of money, I (buy) a new house.

B: That's a nice idea. I (buy) a new car.

4. A: I failed my exam today.

B: Well, if you (study) harder, you (not/fail).

5. A: I've got terrible toothache.

B: If I (be) you, I (go) to the dentist's.

6. A: I'm sorry.

B: What for?

A: If I (not/leave) the door open, the puppy (not/escape).

7. A: Why are you upset?

B: Because it's all my fault. If I (not/be) late, we (not/miss) the bus.

8. A: Where (you/go) if you (can) travel anywhere in the world?

B: If I (can), I (go) to America.

9. A: I've lost my bag with my purse and my keys inside.

B: Well, if I (be) you, I (report) it to the police.

10. A: Ouch! I dropped a glass and cut my finger.

B: Well, if you (be) careful, you (not/cut) yourself.

 

Ex 4. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tense.

1. If you ... had looked ... (look) both ways before crossing the street, you wouldn't have been knocked down. 

2. If I (be) you, I would phone my mother tonight.

Ex. 1. Replace the infinitives in brackets by the right form of the verb.

 

Model: If I were you, I (to read) the book in the original.

If I were you, I would read the book in the original.

If I had known how dull the film was, I (not to go) to the cinema.

If I had known how dull the film was, I would not have gone to the cinema.

1. They (to go) to the beach if it were warmer. 2. If the poem were not so long, I (to learn) it by heart. 3. Even if it were not so late I don't think I (to go) to the cinema. 4. Even though he knew how difficult the situation was, he (not to stop) the preparations. 5. Even if I had a dic­tionary, I don't believe I (to be able) to write the test. 6. Even if you had given her your car, she (cannot arrive) in so short a time. 7. Even if I wanted to, I (can do) nothing now. 8. If you really wanted to buy the house, you (can do) it even now.

 

Ex 2. Replace the infinitives in brackets by the right form of the verb.

 

Model: If I (to know) about it, I (to help) you.

If I had known about it, I would have helped you.

 

1. The place is very dull. Even if it (not to be raining) the whole week, we (not enjoy) our holiday. 2. If you (not to interfere), they (to forget) all about it in an hour. 3. If you (to trust) me, I (can lead) you safely through. 4. The dinner (not to be spoiled) if you (not to forget) the dish in the oven. 5. She (to know) how to behave if she (to be) a born lady. 6. He (not to take) this case even if he (to be asked). 7. The accident (not to happen) if you (to be) more attentive. 8. She (to go) there even though she (to have) to walk all the way. 9. None (to mind) if he (be dismissed). 10. Someone (may notice) if she (open) the letter.

 

Ex 3. Compose conditional sentences on the basis of the follow­ing statements.

Model: It's raining hard. We can't go out. If it were not raining so hard, we could go out.

I have no dictionary. I shan't finish the translation today. If I had a dictionary, I would finish the translation today.

The goal-keeper was hurt early in the game. The team lost. If the goal-keeper had not been hurt early in the game, the team would not have lost.

 

1. She thought of her future and refused to marry the young man.

2. He was deep in his thoughts and did not notice the "no parking" sign.

3. I have a lot of work to do, I can't go to the pictures.

4. There is no one to sit with the baby, I have to stay at home.

5. The rain has stopped at last, and we began to enjoy ourselves.

6. She did not think of the consequences and agreed to forge.

7. There were so many people there that nobody noticed his absence.

8. We don't like cheese. We don't buy it.

9. He lost his temper and said things he did not really mean.

10. I don't know your cousin, I can't meet her at the station.

 

Ex 4. Put the verbs in brackets into the correct tenses. Don't forget that there exist mixed types of conditional sentences.

1. I had a sandwich for lunch. If I (have) a proper lunch, I (not feel) hungry now. 2. He told his friend, "I'm not feeling very well. I (not be) here today if I (not promise)". 3. I can hardly keep my eyes open. If I (go) to bed earlier last night, I (not be) so tired now. he looked at his watch while he was driving and thought, "If I (not sleep), to get petrol, I (be) home now" (use 'might'). 4. If Jack (not hurt) his ankle yesterday, he (play) football this afternoon (use 'could'). He wasn't a very happy man, and he often said, "If I (follow) my advice, I (be) much happier now" (use 'might').

 

Ex 5. Supply the necessary forms for the verbs given in brackets in the following sentences of unreal condition.

1. "Are you still thinking of going on that cruise?" "It (may, be) enjoyable" he said, "if one (to have) just the right person to go with". 2. It (to be) fun if Roberta (to write) a book. 3. I never tried to under­stand my brother. If I (to try) I (may shop) him from going away. 4. If I (to be) you, Meg, I (not to let) myself believe this hateful gossip. 5. I (to hate) myself if I (to deceive) him. 6. He said he had no pain, and if it (not to be) for the doctor, he (to get up) arid (to go) home. 7. She (can go) to Cambridge if she (to want). She had been offered a scholarship. 8. You (to be) horrified if I (to tell) you want had to go through. 9. I'm glad I wasn't at home. He (not to get) much help if he (to ask) me. 10. The house looked awful. If I (to be) given to crying. 11. "No, I won't tell you", she said. "It (not to be) fair to them if it just (to turn) out to be gossip". 12. It (may, be) fatal if she (to learn) the trust.

 

Ex 6. Translate the following conditional sentences:

1. The problem would be very simple if that solution were pos­sible.

2. If we had analyzed the results of the experiment in time we should have taken another course in our studies.

3. Provided we had at least two experimental groups we should start the investigation at once.

4. If the subjects were given all the necessary instructions they would respond in a right way.

5. If he had chosen a definite aim he would have succeeded in research.

6. Unless the poll were carried out on a national level the data would not be true.

7. If he had been more careful he would have received more con­crete results.

8. If I were you I should never accept his offer.

9. I could have agreed with you if you had been right.

10. But for the circumstances they would not have taken such a decision.

11. They would be only glad if you participated in the work at this project.

12. In case of his success he would be invited to take that office.

13. If he had more time at his disposal he would do this job with pleasure.

14. If the ecological problems had been solved in due time we should not have spoken too much of the pollution.

15. If his story had been told about beforehand some urgent meas­ures would have been taken.

16. If you came in time I should be much obliged to you.

 

Ex 7. Translate the following conditional sentences:

1. If your ideas did not contradict the facts, the result would be correct.

2. If these interests were protected the independence of every indi­vidual and every nation would be guaranteed.

3. If the inflation were on the same scale the economic situation would be a bit stabilized.

4. If the workers won in their fight against employers, the strike might be supported by other trade-unions.

5. If they succeeded in their joint venture affairs, they would over­come the crisis situation.

6. If he spoke in favour of market economy, they would get major­ity at the elections.

7. If his business were under progress, they would not become debtors.

8. Provided they received a necessary credit, their matters would be regulated.

9. If this conference had been successful, the Prime Minister would have pursued the other policy.

10. If they had applied modern technology in due time, their in­dustry would have progressed.

11. If the circumstances had been different, the other forms of pol­icy would have been developed.

12. They would have arrived at the knowledge of the idea, had they examined all the data about it.

13. Were their theory consistent, nobody would doubt its value.

14. Had the author concentrated upon a single aspect of his sub­ject, his study would have been proved easier to read.

15. Were I you, I should never accept their proposal.

16. Had it been so urgent, they would have taken all the opportuni­ties to react accordingly.

17. If he had been to the Stock Exchange on that particular day, he would not have missed his chance to earn money.

 

TEXTS FOR SUPPLEMENTARY READING

 

Text 1

Professions. Future Prospects.

 

Fill in the gaps with the following sentences. There are more sentences than necessary.

My association with wood started when my father let me play with some of his tools. (1)_____________ . These were skills which improved with experience and time and soon I became very good at handling wood. My knowledge and ability developed, until at the age of 16, I decided to become a carpenter.

I was very lucky because my choice of career was clear. (2)________ . There are many things to consider and many questions to ask about the right type of job, qualifications, skills and earnings. These are questions usually considered by dynamic and ambitious young people who want a position with a high salary and good prospects for promotion. (3)_____________ .

Early school-leavers usually take poorly paid, low-skilled jobs with no real future. They do not realize that without qualifications or skills they will probably stay in the same job with the same status for most of their working lives. (4)_______________ .

Equally important for a successful career are job skills which have been learned at the place of work. In recent research, it was shown that the ability to apply yourself to your work is the key to success in the world of industry and commerce, as jobs become more dependent on the flexibility, analysis and judgement of the employee.

 

A. I loved it so much that he began to show me how to cut, saw and drill bits of wood and create different shapes.

B. For most young people, however, deciding about their future is very difficult.

C. It's always very important to choose the right subjects.

D. For those who lack skills and qualifications, opportunities for moving up the career ladder are rare.

E. And so a university education is essential.

F. You need to think how you will behave when you are a manager.

G. It is therefore important for young people to get as much education or vocational training as possible.

H. As a result, they will never get promoted.

 

Text 2

Entering a New Era

 

Transformation is taking place on more than one level. In particu­lar we experience changes on a macro level (the overall society), on a medium level (the level of organisations and associations) and on a micro level (personal life of the subjects), and all of them are to be studied.

There are many topics for investigation for a sociologist who studies countries in transition. One may look for answers to such questions as:

- what happened to the institutions which were once integral part of the old structure but were then totally discarded?

- how are individual lives affected when the institutions they lived by, are suddenly denied legitimacy?

- what are the effects when the old worldview is declared untrue and unworkable?

- what does the change mean to different generations?

There might be many more topics for research within this set of problems.

However, some of transformation problem areas may be selected as most important as they are truly characteristic of a new era. Ethnicity is one of them. New positions, roles and alignments of ethnic groups are among the topics of great interest here. We are definitely entering a new era that will be characterised by numerous new socio-cultural align­ments inside and outside national boundaries.

Other topics that are of interest nowadays especially for Interna­tional comparative research apart from ethnicity are: law and citizen­ship under a variety of political systems; the nature and conditions of prejudice, discrimination and xenophobia; the relationship between eth­nicity, labour market and welfare. All of those topics come into one complex problem area that certainly covers all transformation levels: macro, medium and micro.

 

Answer the questions:

1. What levels are changes taking place on?

2. What questions may one ask here?

3. What is the problem area that might truly characterize the new era?

4. What will a new era be characterized by?

5. Can you name a society relevant topic for an international comparative research?

 

Text 3

Man and Technical Progress

 

The first Industrial Revolution took place between the years 1760 and 1860. It was a revolution resulting from the introduction of a new form of power - steam power. The first industrial revolution gave us machines to do the work that had been done before by men's hands. The second Industrial Revolution is much more complicated than the earlier one. In fact, it is a series of revolutions. The second revolution has produced machines that can do the work of men's brains.

In 1957 the launching of the Earth's first man-made satellite ush­ered in the space age. Since then, automatic space probes have brought information about the Moon's surface and samples of its soil. They reached the planets Mars and Venus and are transmitting back to the Earth singu­lar data about outer space over hundreds of millions of miles. People have learned how to live and work in near space and on the Moon, and are preparing for the day when interplanetary travel will be possible.

The population of the Earth is growing rapidly. The utilization of natural resources is growing accordingly. How does the environment influence man and how does society influence nature? Scientists study this problem. Various types of human activity are becoming more and more independent of environmental conditions. All this does not mean that environmental factors and conditions no longer have an effect on our activities. Quite the contrary, the more independent of the environ­ment our actions become, the more fully must we take into account its properties and conditions. Technical progress has made it imperative.

New sources of power, new processes, new materials have come into use with such bewildering speed in the present century that it is hard to keep track of them all. You have only to look around your own home to get some idea of the speed of change. How many things can you find there that could not have been there in your grandfather's boyhood?

Sometimes we call the times, we live in, the age of steel, or the electronic age, or the atomic age, or space age, but what stands out most of all is that is an age of change. All of us are a link in the chain of universal human progress.

 

Answer the questions:

1. When did the first Industrial Revolution take place?

2. What was the reason for it?

3. Why is the second Industrial Revolution more complex than the first one?

4. What changes are we experiencing nowadays?

 

Text 4

Marriage

 

In all societies there are rules that determine how men and women may live together and raise their children. In Western civilization, it has become the general custom for those of marriageable age to find the mates. Formerly choices were limited. Royalty could marry only royalty. Even among com­moners there were strict social strata within which marriage was permissible.

In many non-Western societies today, marriage is thought to be principally the business of the two families who are joined by the alli­ance. Such matters as family, position and wealth are considered more important than the individual choice of the boy and girl, who often do not see each other before their marriage.

In every society there are rules about who may be married to whom. Marriages between close relatives are forbidden universally. In India, one may marry someone of his own caste but may not marry anyone born in his own village.

Most peoples of Europe and America insist that a marriage be be­tween one man and one woman. This type of marriage is called monog­amy. Many non-Western cultures permit plural marriages. Usually these allow one man to have several wives (polygyny¹), but in a few societies a woman may have more than one husband (polyandry²). Both types of plural marriages are referred to as polygamy. In still fewer societies group marriages occur. Group or plural marriages are usually control­led by the economic conditions in the society.

In polygyny a man is allowed to have only as many wives as he can support, or in the opposite situation a woman may be permitted more than one husband only if one husband is not able to support her. In practically all societies marriages may be broken through the process of divorce.

 

Answer the questions:

1. How many wives is a man in polygyny allowed to have?

2. In what way may marriages be broken?

3. What types of marriages are there?

4. What is polygamy? What types of it are there?

5. What marital customs are there in non-Western societies today / in India / in Europe and America?

6. In what case can a man (woman) be allowed to have more than one wife (husband)?

 

Text 5

Manhattan Comp High School

 

The first impressions are rather menacing. Visitors must sign in and show identification before being allowed into the building. Such tight security gives one the feeling of entering a prison or some other dangerous place. But what a deceptive first impression! Manhattan Comprehensive Night High School may be the friendliest, most caring institution in all of New York City. A school of last resort for many of its students, it is their best chance to turn their lives around, and make friends in the process. Manhattan Comp, as it's called, is the first full­time night high school in America.

High school is compulsory until the age of sixteen in America, but many students drop out, either before or after they reach sixteen, and before receiving their high school diplomas. Until now, night education programmes for dropouts only provided the basics and then awarded an equivalency certificate³. But now, Manhattan Comp's students go on to college. The students receive an academic diploma, which they say is more helpful in getting a job than an equivalency certificate. More than sixty percent of Manhattan Comp's students go on to college.

Most of the school's 450 students have either been expelled from or dropped out of other high schools. Some have been in two or three schools before this one.

What seems to make this school work for these hard-to-place stu­dents is the staff and, most importantly, the principal. All the students call him Howard. As he walks through the building, he greets students by name, asks about their families or jobs and jokes with them about the lack of variety in the school cafeteria.

Most students at Manhattan Comp are between eighteen and twen­ty-two years old. You must be at least seventeen to enroll. The classes run from 5 to 11 p.m., Mondays through Thursdays, with all-day en­richment programmes on Sundays which explore topics like playwrit-ing, art and video production. School terms are ten weeks long, which gives students the opportunity to take time off for family matters or jobs. Most students already have some academic credits from previous schools, so instead of the normal four years in high school, they spend, on average, between six months and two years at Manhattan Comp.

 

Answer the questions:

1. Why are you first frightened when you enter Manhattan Comp High School?

2. What is special about this school?

3. Can Manhattan Comp's students continue their education after leaving school?

4. How old must a student be to enroll?

5. What is your opinion of such kind of school? 

 

Text 6

Mobile Phone Public Opinion Poll

 

No consumer product in history has caught on as quickly as the mobile phone, global sales of which have risen from six million in 1991 to more than 400 million a year now. The arrival of the mobile phone has transformed our lifestyles so much that men now spend more time on the phone than women, according to the results of our special opinion poll.

Mobile phones are no longer just the domain of the teenager and, in fact, just as many 40- and 50-somethings now own a mobile phone as the 15 to 20 age group (slightly below 70 %). Even among the over 65 s more than 40 % now have a mobile.

The survey found that men with mobile phones (72 % of all men) spend more than an hour a day making calls on an average weekday. The average man spends sixty-six minutes on his landline or his mobile, com­pared with fifty-three minutes before the mobile phone revolution. But the poll reveals that, while men are using their phones a lot more, women are actually spending less time on the phone⁴. Slightly fewer women (67 %) have a mobile phone, and the survey shows that the average amount of time they spend on the phone on a weekday has gone down from sixty-three minutes before they got a mobile to fifty-five minutes now. The explanation might lie in the fact that men love to play with techno toys while women may be more conscious of the bills they are running up.

Innovation in mobile phones has been happening so fast that it's diffi­cult for consumers to change their behaviour. Phones are constantly swal­lowing up other products like cameras, calculators, clocks, radios, and dig­ital music players. There are twenty different products that previously might have been bought separately that can now be part of a mobile phone. Mo­biles have changed the way people talk to one another, they have generated a new type of language, and they have saved lives and become style icons.

Obviously, the rich have been buying phones faster than the poor. But this happens with every innovation. Mobile phone take-up among the poor has actually been far quicker than it was in the case of previous products, such as colour television, computers and Internet access. In­deed, as mobile phones continue to become cheaper and more power­ful, they might prove to be more successful in bridging the gap between the rich and the poor than expensive computers.

There are obviously drawbacks to mobiles as well: mobile users are two and a half times more likely to develop cancer in areas of the brain adjacent to their phone ear, although researchers are unable to prove wheth­er this has anything to do with the phone; mobile thefts now account for a third of all street robberies in London, and don't forget about all the accidents waiting to happen as people drive with a mobile in one hand. But, overall, mobile phones have proved to be a big benefit for people.

 

Answer the questions:

1. Which group is the one with the highest number of people own­ing a mobile phone?

2. Do women spend less or more time on the phone now than they used to?

3. Can mobile phones replace any other product at present?

4. What has grown faster among the poor, the demand for mobile phones or the demand for computers?

 

Text 7

Tourism

 

Thirty years ago my family were one of the lucky ones and went on holiday, once a year for a week. They went every year to the nearest seaside resort where there were a few traditionally run hotels, a beach, a little town and that was it. Today tourism is big business throughout the world and our expectations and life styles have greatly altered.

There are those people, especially environmentalists, who see the growth of tourism as a disaster for the environment as well as local cultures. Tourism has often meant huge hotel complexes, swimming pools, pollution and over­crowding that has destroyed many local communities. This has been the case on the Costa del Sol in Spain, which has been literally invaded by tourists for the past few decades. As me tourists start to look for more exotic places to go on holiday, the problem with protecting yet unspoiled areas in, for example, South East Asia, Central America and Africa grows.

Many of us have laughed at the commercial that shows an Ameri­can tourist group on a sightseeing coach in Norway. Whenever the guide points out a local sight of interest, someone on the coach spots a McDonald's or another American Company on the other side of the coach, and everyone's attention is drawn to that. This is a good example of how many people, who go abroad on holiday, are actually more inter­ested in experiencing familiar surroundings than discovering the local culture. As a result, travel companies try to make the resorts look as much as possible like the environment the tourists are used to.

Yet the growth of tourism has opened up parts of the world and enabled travellers to go to places they could only have dreamed of thir­ty years ago. The meeting of different cultures in this way has led to a greater mingling of peoples and cultures and habits. Take food for ex­ample: Italian dishes such as spaghetti and Spanish rice dishes such as paella, are nowadays eaten all over the world.

On a more serious level, tourism is often the developing countries' most important source of income. Foreign tourists bring in much needed foreign currency and this can help that country buy equipment and goods from abroad. In this way tourism is good for an area of the country.

 

Answer the questions:

1. Where did the narrator's family usually go on holiday 30 years ago?

2. Where do tourists today try to find more exotic places for a holiday?

3. Why has tourism destroyed many local communities?

4. What dishes are nowadays eaten all over the world?

 

Text 8

Poverty in Britain

 

At the southern end of Waterloo Bridge in London, by the banks of the River Thames, stand the Royal National Theatre, the National Film Theatre and the Royal Festival Hall. In stark contrast to this centre of Lon­don's cultural activity, are the subways close by, which offer some relief from the cold at night. They have become a mecca for the homeless. The place is littered with the cardboard boxes and old mattresses that they use as beds. It became so popular there in the 1980s that each person had their own, much-prized space that they would guard carefully. It gave them a sense of security and became so permanent that the locals gave the area a nickname - Cardboard City. This was also the name of a theatre play direct­ed by the now famous Oscar-winner (for American Beauty) Sam Mendes.

The 1980s saw an enormous increase in people sleeping rough in Britain, as many unemployed came to cities in the south, especially London, where jobs were easier to find. But it's virtually impossible to get a job in Britain without a permanent address, and it's very difficult to get somewhere to live if you don't have a job, so most of those peo­ple got trapped. They ended up with no work and nowhere to live. To­day the housing charity Shelter estimates there are around 100,000 home­less people in London alone, who are either in temporary accommoda­tion or simply living on the streets. These people often hang around railway stations and other public places asking for money.

The British public are asked by their government not to give mon­ey to street beggars. People sympathetic to the homeless are being told to donate money to charities who specialize in caring for the poor or to offer beggars gifts of food or clothes instead of money. Another way you can help is to buy a copy of The Big Issue weekly magazine.

Run for the homeless, The Big Issue is a success on many levels. Its first issue was published in 1991; it won the Magazine of the Year award in 1993, and sells 270,000 copies weekly, which means a reader­ship of over one million. All profits are reinvested into the magazine or diverted to The Big Issue Foundation, a charity that runs many social support programmes for the homeless. The magazine is actually sold by the homeless themselves, which gives them a chance to earn money and retain a sense of dignity. Encouraged by its success in Britain, The Big Issue has become international, and now seventeen titles throughout Europe are being published.

 

Answer the questions:

1. What can you see at the southern end of Waterloo Bridge in London?

2. Why is this poor area called Cardboard City?

3. Why are there so many homeless people in London?

4. What measures have been taken by British society to help such people?

5. What is The Big Issue?

 

Text 9

Private Education

 

The setting is every child's dream. A huge, rambling, 300-year-oldhouse, warmed by log fires, overrun by pets, and set in acres of nat­ural playground. And no school.

That is what makes the Kirkbride household so rare. James, 18, Tamara, 15, Tigger, 14, and Hoppy, 10, have spent me last four years doing what other children only enjoy at weekends and holidays.

They get up when they feel like it, breakfast at leisure, and spend the rest of the day doing what they want. They walk, swim, fish, paint, read, play musical instruments, cook or sit around and chat. There has been no attempt at having any lessons since John and Melinda Kirkbride took their children out of the local school - James five years ago and the others a year later. Hoppy had been there only six days. "We did start with a sort of curriculum when we took James out", says John, 46, a large forceful man. "But we soon realized we were repeating the mistakes of the system".

"From the beginning, we both felt that packing our children off to school was wrong", says Melinda, a German-born former actress. "See­ing their unhappiness made us re-examine our own school years, and remember how destructive they were". John, formerly a TV producer, began a teachers' training course in Norwich, "to see if I could reform from within". He soon found he couldn't and, after completing the course and teaching for four months, he removed himself and his children, from the system.

If the personalities of the children were the only criteria, the exper­iment would be an undoubted success. They are intelligent, confident, capable and considerate. All, including the two boys, cook and sew. Chores are shared without arguments. Their friendliness to each other, and to the many guests who visit the house, is natural and unforced.

"Teach is a swear word in this house", says John. "It destroys the child's own natural talent and creativity. Now learning - that's a different matter. All our children learn when and if they want to learn something. They look it up in books or they go and ask someone who knows, they use their initiative - which is more than any school could teach them".

 

Answer the questions:

1. How many children do the Kirkbrides have?

2. What kind of house do the Kirkbrides live in?

3. What is the Kirkbrides children's daily routine?

4. What are the children's personalities like?

5. Do you believe that these children will become quite knowl-edgeable?

 

Text 10

Crimes

 

In recent years, there has been an explosion of property-related crimes in almost every country. Despite what the majority of people think, such crime is not committed by professional criminals, nor is it carefully planned. In fact, it is the work of opportunists and theoretically, therefore, should be easy to prevent. However, it is surprising how many people still fail to take sensible steps to protect their property and belongings.

In the case of preventing theft from the home, this can be easily done by installing alarms or fitting strong locks on all points of access to the house. Burglars shy away from doors and windows which are properly secured as these can be difficult to open. Additionally, intrud­ers are seldom keen to try their luck on buildings where there are signs of life. So the police often advise to try to give the impression that someone is at home. This may be as simple as leaving a light or televi­sion on while you are out.

As most burglaries are committed by adolescents and young men living within two or three kilometres of the victim, they tend to have a good knowledge of the area and are constantly on the lookout for the telltale signs of empty premises. Amazingly, in three out of ten break-ins, the thief does not even have to use force to get in because the house­holder has left a door unlocked or a window open. If opportunists like these did not exist, criminals would have a much harder time and many crimes would not be committed at all.

A very visible form of property crime is the writing and spray-painting which plagues many city walls. Graffiti has long been identi­fied as one of the major causes of the fear of crime among many city residents. If it is widespread, it may even reduce tourism for similar reasons.

The vandals themselves, on the other hand, take great pleasure in graffiti because of the ill fame it may generate for them, and although some wall paintings display a great amount of talent on the part of the artist, more common are the unattractive tags, or 'signatures'. These are sprayed on as many places as possible and often refer to the gang or 'crew' to which the offender belongs. The offenders normally plan their strikes carefully and because it doesn't take them long to spray their messages, they are rarely apprehended by the police. As a result, they seldom have convictions or a police record.

Despite the depressing statistics associated with property crime, greater cooperation between police, schools, businesses and the local community as a whole will help in the fight to reduce it.

 

Answer the questions:

1. What kind of crimes have been extremely popular lately?

2. Are such crimes committed by professionals?

3. How can people prevent such crimes from happening?

4. What is spray-painting?

 

Text 11

Applying for a Job

 

Experiments have shown that in selecting personnel for a job, inter­viewing is at best a hindrance⁵, and may even cause harm. These studies have disclosed that the judgements of interviewers differ markedly and bear little or no relationship to the adequacy of job applicants. Of the many reasons why this should be the case, three in particular stand out.

The first reason is related to an error of judgement known as the halo effect. If a person has one noticeable good trait, their other charac­teristics will be judged as better than they really are. Thus, an individu­al who dresses smartly and shows self-confidence is likely to be judged capable of doing a job well regardless of his or her real ability.

Interviewers are also prejudiced by an effect called the primacy effect⁶. This error occurs when interpretation of later information is distorted by earlier connected information. Hence, in an interview situ­ation, the interviewer spends most of the interview trying to confirm the impression given by the candidate in the first few moments. Studies have repeatedly demonstrated that such an impression is unrelated to the aptitude of the applicant.

The phenomenon known as the contrast effect also skews the judge­ment of interviewers. A suitable candidate may be underestimated because he or she contrasts with a previous one who appears exceptionally intelli­gent. Likewise, an average candidate who is preceded by one who gives a weak showing may be judged as more suitable than he or she really is.

Since interviews as a form of personnel selection have been shown to be inadequate, other selection procedures have been devised which more accurately predict candidate suitability. Of the various tests de­vised, the predictor which appears to do this most successfully is cogni­tive ability as measured by a variety of verbal and spatial tests.

 

Choose the correct item:

1. The content of the story belongs to the field of

1) management; 2) physiology; 3) education.

2. The idea is that job interviews, as a source of information, are very often

1) unimportant; 2) uncompromising; 3) unreliable.

3. The halo, primacy and contrast effects can

1) make interviewers very impressionable.

2) make interviewers' judgement incorrect.

3) hardly cause any misunderstanding.

4. The information proves that selecting personnel is more successful if it is

1) done on the basis of interviews only.

2) performed by automatic interviewers.

3) effected by a variety of procedures.

 

Text 12

The Need for New Infrastructures

 

Scientific cooperation between sociologists of Europe is of great importance. Under new conditions the social sciences are facing the need for a new infrastructure for research and for information and doc­umentation. A close relationship between social science research and social science information and documentation on a society relevant prob­lem area is of strategic importance.

Some time ago there was the European Coordination Centre for Social Science Research and Documentation, the so-called Vienna Centre. A new European organisation, shaped according to the new requirements of our time is the International Social Science Council (ISSC). A considerable number of European cities have declared themselves willing to host its branches.

There are still two more organisations which have weight in the field. They are ERCOMER - European Research Centre of Migration and Ethnic Relationships (it is a Netherlands-based European research centre), and UNESCO in Paris, in particular its Division for Social Sci­ence Research and Policy, that recently launched an international pro­gramme on research documentation on the Management of Social Transformation (MOST). It will not be surprising that ethnicity and multicultural society is one of the three priority themes in this pro­gramme. The other two are "cities as arenas of accelerated social trans­formation" and "local impacts of global environmental, technological and economic transformations".

 

Answer the questions:

1. What is necessary for the development of sociology?

2. What attempts have been made?

3. What organisations have been involved?

4. What are the main issues discussed?

 

Text 13

The Solution of the Problem of Multilingualism

 

The European continent is the cradle of the social science. But language barriers prevent important social science findings from circu­lating adequately. International access to national social science sec­ondary and primary information requires multilingual documentation, particularly in classifying and indexing. It also requires international information exchange policies and networking. There has been a lot of discussion on this matter within the European community. And the prob­lem is evident. It seems to be wise for reasons of efficiency to adopt one language as a universal core language for references from all other in­volved language areas and as a universal communication language.

Taking the actual situation into account, English may serve well as the core documentation language, forming the link between a number of national documentation systems. Adopting English as the core lan­guage in documentation would not imply simple adoption of the mean­ings currently associated with English terms. Linking national language terms to English terms may differentiate and qualify meanings.

Though one is well aware of the semantic problems which are involved here. Some context-bound concepts are very difficult to iden­tify and to translate. And there is no truth if not placed within the con­text. However, in spite of such difficulties the internationalization of science requires a common communication and information language. So English is to be taught to young scientists as a subject for their uni­versity exams. This is quite simple and evident. English within the uni­versity sociological education programmes starts to be a demand.

 

Answer the questions:

1. Where was sociology born?

2. Why can't scientific findings spread quickly enough?

3. How can we solve this problem?

4. What problems may arise if English becomes the core documental language?

5. How can English become the international information language?

 

Text 14

The University of Alcot

 

Welcome to the University of Alcot. We very much hole that your time here will be both highly productive and highly enjoyable, but we do recognise that it is not always easy for students from other countries to adapt to campus life in Britain.

Your Hall of Residence contains twelve rooms, all like yours. The kitchen and bathrooms are communal. In the interests of hygiene and respect for your flatmates, we would ask you to keep these shared facil­ities as clean and tidy as possible. These rooms will be cleaned by a member of the cleaning staff once a day (Monday to Friday). However, they are not expected to do your washing-up or tidy away your things. Please be polite and respectful to your cleaners - they have a difficult and unpleasant job to do. Your Hall Tutor will introduce himself or herself to you over the next few days. If you have any problems with anything to do with your life on campus, they are there to help you.

Student social life revolves around the Student Union, which is the large yellow building opposite the library. Inside, you will find a number of shops, bars and food outlets, as well as a laundrette, two banks and a travel agent. As a student at Alcot, you are automatically a member of the Union. This entitles you to use all the facilities and to vote in all Union elections and meetings.

Regarding your course of studies, you will receive a letter in the next couple of days from your Head of Department inviting you to attend a wel­come meeting for new students. You will be given further information con­cerning your course at this meeting. Generally, it will consist of lectures, seminars and regular meetings with your Personal Tutor. He or she will be able to deal with any academic problems or questions you may have.

If you have any problems, issues or concerns directly related to the fact that you are a non-British citizen, these can be referred to the International Office. It is staffed by one permanent Welfare Officer and a body of trained student volunteers. They are handling issues related to visas, immigration and police registration.

Further information regarding other university facilities, such as the medical centre, sports centre, arts centre and library, can be found in the accompanying Alcot Guide for Undergraduates. This also contains useful phone numbers and a map of the campus.

 

Answer the questions:

1. What kind of building is your Hall of Residence?

2. What is the Student Union?

3. In what way will your studies be organised if you make up your mind to enter the University of Alcot?

4. What should a non-British citizen do if he or she has any problems?

 

Text 15

Man and Nature

 

The relations between man and nature have become one of the major problems facing civilization today. That is why ecology stands at the crossroads of politics, science and economics.

While "blank spots" have practically disappeared from the Earth's geographical map, the "black spots" marking deserts and other areas of ecological disaster are expanding at a frightening pace. Man perfects everything, including his own shortcomings.

Our ancestors naively considered the Earth's resources to be bound­less and endless. Their ecological ignorance was not their crime, but rather their woe, for it caused the death of thousands of animal species. We shouldn't judge those who lived in the ancient, medieval or even recent times. Man has always had to fight a hostile environment. Even in the 19th century, when the word "ecology" was born, people contin­ued to use nature as consumers. For centuries man has been proclaimed the "lord and king" of nature, and not the child.

"Human" achievements in conquering nature became so great that man's activity began to have an increasingly negative effect on the bio­sphere. For example, forests disappear at a rate of 20 hectares a minute. Today animals and plants perish mostly due to the production of indus­trial pollutants and the poisoning of the biosphere.

Charles Darwin once said that nature cannot lie. Today it is essen­tial that we realize that we ourselves cannot lie to nature. We know that nature is weak and defenceless before man who has grown so strong.

Our time is witness to the beginning of "humanized nature". Human­ism is today what we need most of all, in politics, in relations among peo­ple, and in our attitude to nature. People of different convictions must work together to wipe the ugly "black spots" from the beautiful face of the Earth.

 

Answer the questions:

1. What do "black spots" on the Earth's geographical map mark?

2. Are they expanding?

3. What must people do in order to wipe off these ugly "black spots"?

 

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¹ polygyny - полигиния, многож£нство

² polyandry - полиандрия, многомужество, многомужие

³ equivalency certificate - аттестат об общем среднем образовании